Causes of the Little India Riots

Causes of the Little India Riots Introduction In December 2013, an alarming incident hit Singapore and shocked the entire world. Newspaper, reports on it spread across the globe. This incident is no other than the Little India’s Riot. The severity of this issue had sent different messages to the different communities in Singapore. For instance, the government realized the need to look into the issue of migrant workers, Singaporeans preconceived stereotype of these migrant workers worsen and migrant workers possibly losing a place where they can get to enjoy the sense homeliness that they missed dearly. Hence as a result of this highly discussed incident in Little India, I have decided to take a closer look at Little India and the tension that was built up among the residents and the migrant workers there. Prior to this incident, based on a research by T.C. Chang (2000), most of the initial displeasures came from the non-Indian community living in Little India. (Chang, 2000) However, the result of the riot had sparked off increasing concerns from the Indian residents as well. The riot did not occur due to the tension built up but it certainly did amplify the concerns residents have on the migrant workers and their existence. In this paper, we will look at the history of Little India and the present situation, followed by the reasons for the migrant workers’ gatherings and finally the cause of these tension built up to provide a better picture on how the co-presence of migrant workers and residents created tension. However, prior to that, I would like to introduce certain geog raphical terms that will be used throughout this paper which are mainly, space, place and identity. Space in geography is often used in doing spatial analysis. There are many definitions of space available in the different literatures. However, in the context of this paper, we will be looking at Cognitive Space. Cognitive Space is often used when space is shaped by human’s values and thinking. It is bounded by settings which comprises the identities and relations people have with it. Hence, neither space nor place can exist without one another. (Agnew, 2011; Furland, 2008; Mazà ºr Urbà ¡nek, 1983; Horodniceanu, n.d) According to Edward Relph’s book titled Place and Placelessness (1980), he defined place as â€Å"fusions of human and nature order and are the significant centers of our immediate experiences of the world†(p. 141). In order words, place is somewhere where an individual or group has a strong sense of attachment to, creating a sense of identity with the place. (Monnet, 2011; Hauge, 2007; Tuan, 2001; Seamon, 1996; Relph, 1980) In short, space, plac e and identity are often interlinked and one could not exist without another. Having said that, with a brief introduction to these key terms, we will move on to take a closer look at the issue mentioned. History of Little India Little India is not quite like how it is termed. It was never a designated ethnic enclave, dominated by one particular community, unlike Chinatown. However, under the development of Singapore and the cattle trading industry in the mid-1800s in Little India, it had attracted many Indian traders and laborers coming into Little India and eventually settling down there. The increasing growth of the Indian population during the 19th and 20th century led to the numerous cultural and religious landmarks such as Hindu temples that can still be observed today. By then, Little India was dominated by the Tamil-speaking south Indians. The commercial and retail activities catered specifically to this specific community grew rapidly. Even though it was predominantly occupied by the Indians, there were Chinese and Eurasians inhabitants as well. Hence, Little India is considered have a multi-ethnicity population and not just the Indian community. The diversity of population is showcased through the wide array of worship places in the area catering to the different communities and religions which can be found as architectural landmarks in Little India today. (Chang, 2000; URA, 1995; Wong, n.d) Present situation Fast forward to today’s context, it is undeniable there has been an increasing trend in the number of migrant workers coming into Singapore seeking for job opportunities. Based on the statistics obtained from the Ministry of Manpower Singapore, the number of work permits issued for the construction industry increased from 180,000 as of December 2007 to 306,500 in June 2013 (Ministry of Manpower, 2013). The number of foreign workers working in the construction industry had increased by close to 40% as of the figure in 2007. You might be wondering why the emphasis on migrant workers in the construction industry. This is because large percentage of them came from South Asian and shared a similar culture of the Indians. As such, Little India became a place where they gather during the weekends, converting public and private spaces in their own diaspora third spaces. (Yew, 2014) Their presence had also caused an undeniable change in the landscape of Little India. For instance, Beng ali is now the second mostly widely seen and spoken language in Little India. There are also increasing numbers of Bengali restaurants selling Bengali cuisines and even retail shops selling Bengali products set up along the streets of Little India. The characteristics of a street in South Asian can be seen transported into the streets of Little India, replacing many of Little India’s very own characteristics. (Yew, 2014) This process of place-making is also known as personalization. It refers to putting a distinctive mark on a place and it can be in the form of physical changes or attitudinal changes. In this case, we can see that the influence of these migrant workers had created both tangible and intangible forms of personalization on Little India. (Garcia, 2012) The touch of personalisation further entice them into visiting Little India as based on the article â€Å"Home away from Home† by The Straits Times (2013), Little India provides them with the sense of homeli ness, which they had left behind to seek job opportunities in Singapore. It is also estimated that the numbers of migrant workers going to Little India on Sundays can hit more than 30,000. Reasons This increasing trend had caused tension to build up between them and the residents creating an insider-outsider dichotomy in Little India. (Chang, 2000) An insider refers to someone that has a sense of social belonging and is adapted to fit the space while an outsider, is someone who does not feel belonged and feels culturally out of place. According the Edward Relph (1980), there are different forms of insideness and outsideness. In the context of Little India, the residents themselves take up the identity as existential insiders. It is only possible for people who live in that place and had developed a strong sense of belonging and identity with it. The migrant workers on the other hand are incidental outsiders whereby the place was just a setting where they have their activities at. (Relph, 1980) As a result of the co-existence of these two communities in one place, one as an insider and the other as an outsider, a dichotomy will follow because of the different importance the pla ce plays for them. Residents, as insiders, will value the place much more than the migrant workers as the place provides them with a sense of belonging, attachment and identity and played an important role in their daily lives as it is the place where they live and play. The migrant workers on the other hand may only refer Little India as a place for them to gather over the weekends as it provides them the sense of homeliness. (Chan et al., 2013) Therefore, because of different importance Little India plays for the different community, certain behaviors or actions carried out by the â€Å"outsiders† in it may be deemed as unacceptable by the â€Å"insiders†. The unacceptance of the actions hence creates a tension build up between the two. In addition, the sense of insideness and belonging the residents had of Little India also portrayed an implicit sense that they entitled more rights to the space compared to the â€Å"outsiders† and that these public spaces should not be â€Å"owned† by the â€Å"outsiders† during the weekends. However, no one actually legally owns these public spaces. (Yew, 2014) Hence, as a result of these prejudice ownership of rights of the residents and the tension built up overtime, these common spaces where these migrant workers tend to frequent in large numbers were constructed into social problems as their attempts in reclaiming of public spaces. (Yew, 2014; Chang, 2014; Berlenger et al. 2012; Garcia, 2012) The increasing trend of tension build up could be seen from the increasing numbers of reports on the complaints residents had lodged on the migrant workers because of their misconduct. Most of the residents interviewed voiced that the presence of these migrant workers was a major issue that should be looked at. Many complained of their rowdiness under void decks, loitering and even claimed to feel unsafe. This is especially so after the recent riot that occurred in Little India in December 2013. (Yahoo, 2013; Lee, 2013; Gan, 2011; Chang, 2014) However, I feel that besides the insider-outsider dichotomy inside Little India between the residents and migrant workers, the concept of â€Å"othering†, the marginalization of migrant workers in Singapore is highly applicable to the reason for tension build up as well. (Rubdy Mckay, 2013; Vincent et al., 2006) Migrant workers coming into Singapore has always been seen as an â€Å"other† on Singapore landscapes and were marginalized by society. The preconceived stereotype the general public had of the migrant workers often associate it with the 3’Ds which are dirty, difficult and dangerous. (Yew, 2014; Rubdy Mckay, 2013; Vincent et al., 2006) Hence, because of the jobs they are involved in, mostly construction, they are often seen as the â€Å"foreign, lowly and othered pariahs in society† (Rosanow, n.d). These perceptions could be due to the lack of exposure to these workers or even hearsay. Even though there were efforts made by the government, it is still not possible to erase the fundamental relationship between Singaporeans and the migrant workers that had built up for a long time. Hence, due to the preconceived stereotypes the general public had of migrant workers and the increasing numbers of migrant workers, it amplified the anxieties of alterity residents had of the migrant workers in Little India. This increasing sense of alterity is also one of the possible causes of insider-outsider dichotomy in the area, thus creating tension due to unacceptability. Hence, we can say that the issue of marginalization of foreign workers in general among Singaporeans had played a part in contributing to the formation of the insider-outsider dichotomy. Conclusion In conclusion, the increasing number of migrant workers coming into Singapore had created tension between the locals and them. Tension built up could be due to the preconceived idea people have of these workers and hence rejecting them placing their footsteps on Singapore’s landscape or becoming part of their â€Å"space†. This rejection can be seen through the insider-outsider dichotomy as mentioned above. These signs of tension between residents and migrant workers are not only observed in Little India. Places such as Lucky Plaza in Orchard Road and Golden Mile are areas that face similar issues like those in Little India where there is a constant build-up of tension because of the increasing number of migrant workers gathering in these areas. This tension will continue to grow if neither Singaporeans nor migrant workers are willing to change their mindsets. Singaporeans ought to keep an open mind about these migrant workers while the workers become more sensitive to their environment and the feelings of the residents. Singaporeans have to learn to appreciate their existence on Singapore landscapes, the role they play in our society and not judge them based on the work they are involved in. It is the only way to prevent continual build-up of tension as it is an undeniable fact that Singapore needs these workers to sustain its development. Bibliography Berlenger, H., Cameron, S., Mora, C. d. (2012). Place Identity and the experience of Public Space: Revitalisation. Restorativeness, and Transformation. In H. Casakin, F. Bernando, Role of Place Identity in the Perception, Understanding, and Design of Built Environments (pp. 47-91). SAIF Zone, Sharjah, UAE: Bentham Science Publishers. Chang, R. (2014, January 26). Supper Club: Denise Phua: Put ourselves in Little India residents shoes, The Straits Times: SingaPolitics. Retrieved February 11, 2014, from: http://www.singapolitics.sg/supperclub/denise-phua-put-ourselves-little-india-residents-shoes Chang, R., Mokhtar, M., Yong, C. (2013, December 17). Little India Home Away From Home, The Straits Times. Retrieved from http://www.straitstimes.com/the-big-story/case-you-missed-it/story/little-india-home-away-home-20131217 Chang, T. C. (2000). Singapores Little India: A Tourist Attraction as a Contested Landscape, Urban Studies. 37(2), 343-366. Furland, E. B. (2008). The effect of development in Little India and Chinatown, Singapore, from third to first world country. Norwegian University of Technology and Science, Department of Geography. Trondheim. Gan, L. K. (2011, June 20). The New Paper: Little India Residents Woes, AsiaOne News. Retrieved February 9, 2014, from: http://news.asiaone.com/News/AsiaOne+News/Singapore/Story/A1Story20110620-285089.html. Garcia, J. H. (2012). Open Spaces in Informal Settlements in Bogota, Expressions of Attachment and Identity. In H. Casakin, F. Bernardo, Role of Place Identity in the Perception, Understanding, and Design of Built Environments (pp. 92-106). SAIF Zone, Sharjah, UAE : Bentham Science Publishers . Hage, G. (2006). Insiders and Outsiders. Sociology: place, time and division. Hauge, A. L. (2007, March 1). Identity and place: a critical comparison of three, Architectural Science Review. 2-6. Horodniceanu, O. (n.d). Space, Place, Idenity, Geographical Approaches Lee, K. L. (2013, December 10). Safety of Little India’s residents can be improved, Today Online: Voices. Retrieved February 9, 2014, from: http://www.todayonline.com/voices/safety-little-indias-residents-can-be-improved Mazà ºr, E., Urbà ¡nek, J. (1983). Space in Geography. GeoJournal, 7(2), 139-143. Ministry of Manpower. (2013, June). Foreign Workforce Numbers, Ministy of Manpower. Retrieved February 11, 2014, from: http://www.mom.gov.sg/statistics-publications/others/statistics/Pages/ForeignWorkforceNumbers.aspx#sthash.vIDdObHR.dpbs Monnet, J. (2011). The symbolism of place: a geography of relationships between space, power and identity (Vols. (1278-3366)). Cybergeodo. Relph, E. (1980). Place and Placelessness. London: Pion Limited. Rosanow, G. A. (n.d). Home Away from Home Social Support Network for Migrant Workers , Kitakyushu Forum for Women. Rubdy, R., Mckay, S. L. (2013). Foreign Workers in Singapore: Conflicting discourses, language politics and the negotiation of immigrant identities. De Gruyter Mouton. Seamon, D. (1996). A Singular Impact: Edward Relphs Place and Placelessness. In Environmental and Architectural Phenomenology Newsletter (Vol. 7, pp. 5-8). Selten, M., Zandt, F. v. (2012, September 19). Space vs Place. Human Geography Knowledge Base Retrieved March 3, 2014, from http://geography.ruhosting.nl/geography/index.php?title=Space_vs._place Tuan, Y.-F. (2001). Space and Place: The Perspective Experience. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Urban Redevelopemnt Authority. (n.d). Conservation-Little India, Urban Redevelopment Authority. Retrieved February 10, 2014, from: http://www.ura.gov.sg/uol/conservation/conservation-xml.aspx?id=LTIN Urban Redevelopment Authority. (1995). Little India- Historic District. Singapore. Vincent, J. A., Shiuan, O. S., Subto, S. F., Manhong, Y., Jing, Y. Y. (2008). The Attitudes of Tertiary Students toward Foreign Construction Workers. Ngee Ann Polytechnic. Wong, S. Y. (n.d). Not such a Little India, Reclaim Land. Retrieved February 9, 2014, from: http://reclaimland.sg/rl/?p=30 Yahoo News: Shopkeepers,residents,visitors responds to Little Indias riot. (2013, December 9). Retrieved from http://sg.news.yahoo.com/singapore-charge-24-indian-workers-rioting-044957734.html Yew, L. (2014). Asianism and the Politics of Regional Consciousness in Singapore. In L. Yew, Asianised Landscapes and the transculturation of Singapore (pp. 174-205). United States of America: Routledge.

Lord Jim Essay

â€Å"The writers, I do believe, who get the best and most lasting response from the readers are the writers who offer a happy ending through moral development. By a happy ending, I do not mean mere fortunate events – a marriage or a last-minute rescue from death – but some kind of spiritual reassessment of moral reconciliation, even with the self, even at death. † In his literary masterpiece, Lord Jim, Joseph Conrad’s theme development is complex but mirrors Fay Weldon’s statement. Dealing with the paradox of whether a human being is capable of both good and evil the moral focus of the novel is the degree of the central characters guilt, his related attempts at self-justification, and in the end, whether or not good works can make up for one bad act. As will be supported in the following paragraphs, Lord Jim is a story of guilt, punishment, obsession to regain lost honor, and moral rescue. Within the opening pages of the novel, Conrad’s central character is presented as less than the romantic hero. Described as being â€Å"an inch, perhaps two, under six feet† (Conrad, p. 9) Jim, the young son of a minister, is drawn to the sea as a youth and has developed a romantic view of himself as one who will meet crisis with calmness and determination. Ultimately, he is not shaken in this belief by his failure to reach the cutter of his training ship. As the plot continues, due to an illness, Jim is left behind in Singapore when his ship returns to England. As a result, he decides to take berth on a local steamer, the Patna, which is involved in an accident. Faced with what he determines to be a hopeless situation, he jumps and deserts his ship when it appears that the Patna is going to sink with all 800 passengers onboard. When it becomes known that the passengers survived, Jim becomes a social outcast. Despite the fact that he was â€Å"one of us† (Conrad, p. 63) his jump â€Å"into a well-into an everlasting deep hole. . . .’ ‘(Conrad, p. 87) associates him with the other officers, known as troublemakers, who have deserted the Patna. His offense is one upon which the Court of Enquiry can have no mercy. Jim however, refuses to accept this association and does his utmost to distinguish himself from them as evidenced by the quote â€Å"They all got out of it in one way or another, but it wouldn’t do for me. † (Conrad, p. 64) He even goes to the extent of attempting to pardon himself as is evidenced when he reports to Marlow, â€Å"There was not the thickness of a sheet of paper between the right and wrong of this affair. † (Conrad, p. 100) Not entirely convincing however, his hope is that he can ultimately rehabilitate himself. As in his first failure in the training ship, he remains certain that he can still be prepared for any emergency and has only been betrayed by circumstances. He finds it impossible to accept his weakness and chooses not to stay in a place where men know his story. Therefore, he is driven farther and farther east in the search of a refuge where he can start over again by establishing himself as a trustworthy man and seeking escape from his feelings of guilt. In what seems to be a distinct second part of the book Lord Jim, Jim is able find relief from his guilt by settling in the remote village of Patusan. Acting as an agent for the trader Stein, it is here that he rises to be â€Å"Lord Jim,† where the â€Å"jump† is never questioned, and the natives become dependent on his strength and character. It finally seems that he has successfully isolated himself from his past, in a place where, â€Å"The stream of civilization, as if divided on a headland a hundred miles north of Patusan, branches east and south-west, leaving its pains and valleys, its old trees and its old mankind, neglected and isolated. † (Conrad, p170) Despite the fact that he has achieved â€Å"the conquest of love, honor, men’s’ confidence,† (Conrad, p. 169) his past comes in search of him. Gentleman Brown and his crew invade the â€Å"wall of forests† (Conrad, p. 307), which keeps Jim in his isolation. Physically, as determined by numbers, the people of Patusan are more that a match for Brown, but mentally Jim is helpless before this man who holds scorn for mankind and who â€Å"would rob a man as if only to demonstrate his poor opinion of the creature†. Conrad, p. 261) Brown opens the wound of Jim’s past when he asks whether he had â€Å"nothing fishy in his life to remember that he was so damnedly hard upon a man trying to get out of a deadly hole by the first means that came to hand-and so on and so on. And there ran through the rough talk a vein of subtle reference to their common blood, an assumption of common experience; a sickening suggestion of common guilt, of secret knowledge that was like a bond of their minds and of their hearts†. (Conrad, p. 86) Everything that Brown says recalls Jim’s past weaknesses and thusly undermines his certainty that he has placed his past cowardice behind him. As a result, Jim finds that his inner peace was just an illusion, that â€Å"his fate, revolted, was forcing his hand† (Conrad, p. 290), and that his ability to act decisively is paralyzed. He allows Brown and his followers to leave the country unharmed if they promise to take no life. They however break the pact by killing the chief’s son, Dain Waris. With solitude shattered, Jim sees the path of destiny before him because he guaranteed the lives of all the people against Brown and his men. He feels that he can only conquer his fatal destiny by suicide, so that â€Å"the dark powers should not rob him twice of his peace†. (Conrad, p. 302) Though given the opportunity, he does not try to escape with Jewel, but allows himself to be killed by Doramin. Upon reflection of the events of Jim’s life Marlow understands, with sad irony, that for Jim the sacrifice might seem ‘an extraordinary success† (Conrad, p. 07) for â€Å"that in the short moment of his last proud and unflinching glance, he had held the face of that opportunity which, like an Eastern bride, had come veiled to his side. † (Conrad, p. 307) Therefore, at last, Jim feels himself become a hero by finally being given the heroic chance he had been waiting for. Twice before (on the decks of the training ship and Patna) he had failed to act heroi cally when given the opportunity to act with honor and courage. At the end of the novel, by offering his own life to Doramin, Jim is able to face and pass the final test with bravery although it costs him his life. Thus, the novel ends on a positive note because Conrad’s central character triumphs when he finally receives moral redemption. It certainly may sound peculiar to say that the death of the hero provides a successful ending to the novel. Usually, such an ending would be considered to be unsuccessful and in fact, to be a tragedy. However, in Joseph Conrad’s Lord Jim, as the central character, Jim is plagued by guilt over an incident that occurred in his youth. It is this very incident that has dominated his life from the very beginning pages and despite Jim’s â€Å"conviction of innate blamelessness,† (Conrad, p. 4) he was to blame, and the rest of the book is taken up with his attempts to deal with his actions. He, in a sense, becomes obsessed with redemption and each choice he makes is controlled by this need. It is only in the end that he comes to the realization of the significance of his choices and to the fulfillment of his destiny. Cowardice in the fac e of the crucial test was contained in Jim’s destiny and only by realizing that he will never be able to run away from himself could he atone for his offense. In the end, as described by Marlow, Jim â€Å"passes away under a cloud â€Å"(Conrad, p. 307), as he had lived under a cloud. Marlow suggests the irony of his narrative by saying that â€Å"Not in the wildest days of his boyish visions could (Jim) have seen the alluring shape of such an extraordinary success! † (Conrad, p. 307) Thus, it is only through this last and final act that Conrad’s Lord Jim was finally able to reach success by bravely giving up his life for respect, honor, and redemption.

Crusades: First Crusade and New Paragraph

The Crusades were a series of religiously sanctioned military campaigns waged by much of Western Christian Europe, particularly the Franks of France and the Holy Roman Empire. The specific crusades to restore Christian control of the Holy Land were fought over a period of nearly 200 years, between 1095 and 1291. There are several reasons for the Crusades, but the importance and relevance of some are debated by scholars even to this day. (NEW PARAGRAPH) In the Middle Ages, Christians considered Palestine the Holy Land because it was where Jesus had lived and taught.The Arabs had conquered Palestine in the 600s. Most Arabs were Muslims, but they usually tolerated other religions. Jews and Christians who paid their taxes and observed other regulations were free to live in Palestine and practice their own religion. The Arab rulers didn’t usually interfere with Christian pilgrims visiting Palestine, and European traders could generally do business there. During the 1000s the Seljuk Turks, people from central Asia who had adopted the Muslim faith, conquered Palestine and attacked Asia Minor, which was part of the Byzantine Empire. NEW PARAGRAPH) When the Turks threatened the capital city of Constantinople, the Byzantine emperor appealed to the pope in Rome.Because Christian pilgrims going to Palestine came home with reports of persecution from the Turks, the Byzantine emperor’s appeal for help found a reception in Europe. (NEW PARAGRAPH) Pope Urban I wanted to regain the Holy Land from the Muslims. He called a great meeting of church leaders and French nobles at Clermont France in 1095. At the meeting he encouraged the powerful feudal nobles to stop fighting with each other, and to join in one big war against the â€Å"unbelievers. Urban’s request made his listeners very enthusiastic and they joined in one big cry, â€Å"God wills it! † (NEW PARAGRAPH) From Clermont people traveled through France preaching the cause. The people who joined the expeditions sewed a cloth cross on their clothes. They were called crusaders, from the Latin word cruciata, which means, â€Å"marked with a cross. † People joined the Crusades, the expeditions to regain the Holy Land, for many different reasons. Most knights joined the crusades for the land and plunder in the rich Middle East. Merchants saw a chance to make money.The pope promised both heavenly and earthly rewards. Those who died on a Crusade were said to go strait to heaven. (NEW PARAGRAPH) The pope also guaranteed church protection of the crusader’s property and family during his absence. Debtors who joined a Crusade had their debts canceled. Criminals were relieved of punishment. The Crusades appealed to both a love of adventure and the promise of reward- the desire to escape debts or punishment. French and Norman nobles led the First Crusade that lasted from 1096 to 1099. In three organized armies, they marched across Europe to Constantinople. NEW PARAGRAPH) The crusaders received a hostile reception in Constantinople. The Byzantine emperor had asked for some assistance, but now, seeing three armies approaching the city, he feared they might capture and plunder the capitol. After much discussion the Byzantines allowed the crusaders to pass through Constantinople to begin their long, hot march across Asia Minor toward Palestine. In their wool and leather garments and their heavy armor, the crusaders suffered severely from the heat. Because they had few pack animals, a shortage of food and water plagued them.Additional problems erupted when the leaders quarreled over fiefs in the lands they captured. Despite these difficulties, however, the crusaders forged on to capture the city of Antioch. Then they marched toward Jerusalem. If the Turks had not also been quarreling and disunited, the expedition would have failed. (NEW PARAGRAPH) Conditions improved as the crusaders marched down the seacoast toward Palestine. Fleets of ships from the It alian cities of Genoa and Pisa brought reinforcements and supplies. The crusaders captured Jerusalem after a short battle and slaughtered the Muslim inhabitants.One leader wrote to the pope that his horse’s legs had been bloodstained to the knees from riding among the bodies of the dead Muslims. In the Middle East the crusaders set up four small states: the County of Edessa, the Principality of Antioch, the County of Tripole, and the Kingdom of Jerusalem. They introduced European feudalism and subdivided the land into fiefs controlled by vassals and lords. For almost a century, the Europeans occupied these lands. (NEW PARAGRAPH) Brisk European trade, with goods carried mostly in Italian ships, sprang up.Christians and Muslims lived in close proximity and grew to respect each other. Many Christians adopted Eastern customs and came to prefer Eastern food and clothing. The Second Crusade began in 1147, after the Turks had recaptured the important city of Edessa and threatened th e Kingdom of Jerusalem. In this Crusade, King Louis VII of France and the Holy Roman Emperor, Conrad III led their armies across Europe to the Holy Land. They were fighting separately, and didn’t join forces until they got to Damascus, which was held by the Turks.Luis and Conrad couldn’t capture the city and returned to Europe disgracefully in two years. In 1187 the Muslim leader Saladin recaptured Jerusalem. (NEW PARAGRAPH) Two years later the Third Crusade, the â€Å"Crusade of the Three Kings,† began and lasted until 1192. King Richard of England, King Philip Augustus of France, and Emperor Frederick Barboarossa of the Holy Roman Empire each started out at the head of a great army to regain the Holy Land. The Europeans failed once again, and an estimated 300,000 Christians and Muslims died.There were many more Crusades until 1291, when the Muslims captured the last Christian stronghold, in Acre. Fore 200 years a constant flow of Europeans streamed into the Ho ly Land. Over that period, however, the religious zeal of the crusaders had steadily dwindled. (NEW PARAGRAPH) From a military standpoint, all the Crusades except the first failed. The Muslims eventually recaptured Jerusalem and the rest of Palestine. However, Europeans learned many things of military importance, such as the crossbow, carrier pigeons and messengers, new siege tactics, and gunpowder.In Europe the Crusades increased the power of kings and decreased the power of feudal lords. Kings imposed new taxes and led armies drawn from their entire countries. The church also got more political power because of its leadership role in initiating the crusades. After the Crusades the status of women changed. When their husbands were gone they managed feudal estates. Europeans were influenced by the ideas exchanged among the crusaders form different countries and between the crusaders and the other people they met.

The Environmental Lobby and Voting Trends in the United...

The Environmental Lobby and Voting Trends in the United States The environmental movement in the United States has typically focused its resources on public education, legislative lobbying and litigation. However, the movement’s success in the latter two is highly dependent on the quality and character of elected officials. Successful public education on behalf of the environment translates into greater environmentalist electoral success. This paper discusses national trends that impact and influence the environmental lobby’s ability to achieve favorable electoral results, and the manner in which the lobby has responded to those trends. Overall, the American public is receptive to environmentalism, but the political realm is†¦show more content†¦From 1988 to 1992 40-50% of strong Republicans supported increased federal spending on the environment, while the vast majority of the remaining strong Republicans supported the status quo. After 1994, independent leaning Republicans and weak Republicans increased their support for decreased environmental spending by roughly 10 percentage points each, bringing each group to 12-13% support for decreased spending. Strong Republicans, however, moved from about 2-8% to roughly 23% support for decreased environmental spending. Again, these changes indicate the highly partisan nature of support for decreased environmental spending. The â€Å"Republican Revolutionâ⠂¬  of 1994 brought a much more Conservative flavor to the Republican Party. Strong Republicans would be more likely to toe the party line on issues like environmental spending, and post-1994, the Republican Party line was arguably more anti-environmentalist. This willingness among strong Republicans to carry the party line on environmental issues may be partly responsible for the widening gap between some groups of traditional Republicans. Republicans showed their strongest support for environmental spending in 1988, the year after President Reagan signed the Montreal Protocol. Here again, a sign that strong Republicans may be following party cues more than individual preferences on environmental issues. The nation as a whole was more supportive of environmental spending in 1988 than in most years, but even strongShow MoreRelatedCorporate Internal Policy Interference : A Paramount Determinant Of The Mncs Direct Influence Over Government Policy1547 Words   |  7 PagesPowerful industries lobby governments to ensure public policy decisions remain favorable to the industry represented, giving greater power to large lobby groups than to environmental and public interest groups (J. Roberts, 2011). 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